{"id":40647,"date":"2024-01-10T11:32:13","date_gmt":"2024-01-10T11:32:13","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.psiho-help.com\/2024\/01\/10\/developmental-psychology-and-psychopathology\/"},"modified":"2025-06-08T14:27:38","modified_gmt":"2025-06-08T14:27:38","slug":"developmental-psychology-and-psychopathology","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/testing-bench.online\/en\/2024\/01\/10\/developmental-psychology-and-psychopathology\/","title":{"rendered":"Developmental psychology and psychopathology"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\"Razvojna\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t

Developmental Psychology and Psychopathology<\/h4>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t

Developmental psychology is a branch of psychology that deals with the psychological aspects of our development from conception to death, meaning it encompasses all stages of life\u2014from the prenatal period, through infancy (babyhood), early childhood (up to age three), the preschool period (until starting school), and the school period (beginning with school enrollment), which includes puberty (an individual process that typically begins in the teenage years, though in some cases earlier), and adolescence (considered the \u201cpsychological period of puberty\u201d or an extension of youth until adulthood). This is followed by early adulthood (post-adolescence), middle adulthood (from the thirties to the fifties), late adulthood or mature age (into the sixties), and old age (typically from the mid-sixties onward), ending in death.<\/p>

While developmental psychology<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0studies the aspects of what is considered \u201cnormal development,\u201d developmental psychopathology<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0focuses on psychological development that has \u201cgone off track,\u201d and is thus concerned with the study, detection, and treatment of mental disorders during childhood and adolescence. Some of these disorders are referred to as neurodevelopmental disorders.<\/b><\/u><\/strong><\/p>

Each stage of life brings with it specific psychological tasks that need to be addressed, and the successful resolution of these tasks or \u201ccrises\u201d enables the transition to the next developmental stage and the ability to cope with the tasks characteristic of that stage. In psychology, these types of tasks are usually categorized into tasks that require cognitive<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0(thinking, intellectual) effort, tasks related to emotional<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0development, and tasks associated with specific crises in psychosocial development<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Prenatal Development \u2013 The Pregnancy Period, from Conception to Birth<\/b><\/strong><\/h5>

Prenatal development refers to the period from conception to birth and represents an unconscious stage of life that none of us can remember. However, the so-called \u201cpsychology of pregnancy\u201d<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0and \u201cpregnant life\u201d<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0are of great importance during this time, as the mother’s behavior and psychological functioning throughout pregnancy significantly contribute not only to the course of the pregnancy itself but also lay the foundation for future psychological development.<\/p>

Knowledge of prenatal development, or the life stage of each individual accessed through psychological anamnesis, reveals patterns of communication within the family. For instance, did the parents ever talk to the child about this period of development? What was that period like? What did they go through\u2014did they have to relocate, was there a state of war, was there abuse between partners, how was the mother’s pregnancy, did she consume alcohol, drugs, or medications, and what were the material and social living conditions during the pregnancy? These are just some of the many questions asked during the psychological assessment of an individual’s development from their prenatal period. An important piece of information is also how the birth took place and whether there were any complications during delivery.<\/p>

Neurodevelopmental Disorders<\/u><\/strong><\/h5>

Neurodevelopmental disorders can arise during prenatal<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0or perinatal<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0development and refer to conditions in which disturbances during pregnancy (prenatal) or childbirth (perinatal) affect the development of the nervous system. These disorders can lead to a range of cognitive<\/b><\/strong>, motor<\/b><\/strong>, emotional<\/b><\/strong>, and social impairments<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Prenatal causes of impairments<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0refer to factors that affect the fetus during the mother\u2019s pregnancy. These include genetic factors, infections, malnutrition or poor diet, exposure to toxins or drugs, and complications in the mother\u2019s health. The most common maternal infections that can lead to certain neurodevelopmental disorders include rubella virus infection<\/b><\/strong>, cytomegalovirus<\/b><\/strong>, and toxoplasmosis<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Rubella virus infection, especially in the first trimester of pregnancy, can cause autism spectrum disorders<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0and intellectual developmental difficulties<\/b><\/strong>. Cytomegalovirus infection during pregnancy may lead to developmental delay<\/b><\/strong>, intellectual disabilities<\/b><\/strong>, and other neurodevelopmental impairments<\/b><\/strong>. The parasitic infection toxoplasmosis can cause developmental delay<\/b><\/strong>, intellectual disabilities<\/b><\/strong>, psychomotor issues<\/b><\/strong>, and visual problems<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Maternal alcohol consumption<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0can lead to Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)<\/b><\/strong>, which may later result in cognitive impairments<\/b><\/strong>, ADHD<\/b><\/strong>, and social and emotional difficulties<\/b><\/strong>. Drug use during pregnancy<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0may lead to learning difficulties<\/b><\/strong>, attention development and functioning problems<\/b><\/strong>, as well as motor deficits<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0in the child.<\/p>

Genetic disorders<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0involve either inherited genetic diseases or de novo mutations<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0in the fetus’s genes, leading to conditions such as Down syndrome<\/b><\/strong>, Phenylketonuria<\/b><\/strong>, Fragile X syndrome<\/b><\/strong>, and others. Poor maternal nutrition or malnourishment can impair fetal brain development, resulting in intellectual disabilities<\/b><\/strong>, ADHD<\/b><\/strong>, and other cognitive and behavioral issues<\/b><\/strong>. Maternal health problems, such as diabetes<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0or thyroid disorders<\/b><\/strong>, also increase the risk of neurodevelopmental disorders.<\/p>

Perinatal causes<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0refer to events that occur during childbirth or the birthing process, or immediately after birth, and may involve complications during delivery, oxygen deprivation, or trauma affecting brain development. One possible outcome is hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy<\/b><\/strong>, which occurs due to a lack of oxygen in the baby\u2019s brain blood supply during or after birth. This condition can lead to cerebral palsy<\/b><\/strong>, developmental delays<\/b><\/strong>, and intellectual disabilities<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Premature birth<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0refers to babies born before the 37th week of pregnancy, and such children are at increased risk of developing neurodevelopmental disorders<\/b><\/strong>. Birth trauma<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0refers to physical injuries sustained during delivery, such as head trauma<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0or damage to the nervous system<\/b><\/strong>, resulting in motor deficits<\/b><\/strong>, intellectual impairments<\/b><\/strong>, and cerebral palsy<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Infections during childbirth<\/b><\/strong>, such as neonatal meningitis<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0or sepsis<\/b><\/strong>, can lead to neurodevelopmental disorders if the brain is affected. Neonatal jaundice<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0is a serious form of jaundice in newborns which, if untreated, can result in brain damage causing hearing loss<\/b><\/strong>, motor impairments<\/b><\/strong>, and developmental delays<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Identifying and understanding prenatal and perinatal factors<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0that contribute to these disorders can support better diagnosis, treatment<\/b><\/strong>, and the potential prevention<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0of some of the harmful consequences associated with these conditions.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t

Infancy (from birth to the first year of life)<\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\"birth\"\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t

A baby’s psychological development begins with their arrival into the world. Since infants do not communicate verbally, their psychological assessment differs from that of children who are able to express themselves. In infants, the focus is primarily on evaluating psychomotor abilities<\/b><\/strong>, or sensorimotor functioning<\/b><\/strong>, and their ability to non-verbally interact<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0with the environment (such as tracking with their eyes, smiling, cooing, movement, standing, sitting, walking, crawling, and oral zone exploration).<\/p>

At birth, psychomotor reflexes<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0are examined\u2014these are present at birth but disappear after a certain period. By the end of infancy, these neonatal reflexes are no longer present. Babies primarily communicate through crying<\/b><\/strong>, which indicates distress. Since they go through various challenges while adapting to the external world, crying may also be associated with pain<\/b><\/strong>, discomfort<\/b><\/strong>, nausea<\/b><\/strong>, teething<\/b><\/strong>, body temperature changes<\/b><\/strong>, and more.<\/p>

There are calmer and more restless babies, which can depend on the baby\u2019s temperament<\/b><\/strong>, partially inherited through the nervous system<\/b><\/strong>. Due to their weaker immune system<\/b><\/strong>, infants are more vulnerable to infections and require special care to protect them from microbial threats. However, overprotection<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0can also lead to the development of a weaker organism<\/b><\/strong>, less capable of fighting infections.<\/p>

Over time, parents or caregivers establish relationships with the infant, and the infant with them. Therefore, it is also important to assess the infant’s adaptability<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0to new and unfamiliar situations, as well as their ability to form emotional bonds<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0with objects or people in their surroundings. Due to natural biological bonding, it is generally the case (though exceptions exist) that the first true emotional bond a baby forms is with the mother<\/b><\/strong>, and later with other people in their environment.<\/p>

Even in the first stage of life, although more challenging, certain neurodevelopmental disorders<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0can be detected in infants. Autism spectrum disorders<\/b><\/u><\/strong>\u00a0are difficult to identify in the first year of life, but infants are typically monitored for their progress in sensorimotor development<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

It is possible to observe the presence of genetic disorders<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0such as Down syndrome<\/b><\/strong>, fragile X syndrome<\/b><\/strong>, cystic fibrosis<\/b><\/strong>, and sickle cell disease<\/b><\/strong>. Infants with Down syndrome<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0have distinctive physical features that differentiate them from other children, experience delays in cognitive development<\/b><\/strong>, and may have heart conditions<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0and other health issues. Fragile X syndrome<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0is more commonly observed in boys and leads to intellectual disabilities<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0and developmental delays<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0(e.g., in speech development), and later manifests as social anxiety<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0and repetitive behaviors<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Cystic fibrosis<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0is a genetic condition that affects the lungs and digestive system<\/b><\/strong>, so infants may experience respiratory problems<\/b><\/strong>, difficulty gaining weight<\/b><\/strong>, and chronic diarrhea<\/b><\/strong>. Sickle cell disease<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0refers to an altered shape of red blood cells, which can lead to blockages in blood flow<\/b><\/strong>, pain<\/b><\/strong>, and an increased risk of infections<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Congenital disorders<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0refer to congenital heart defects<\/b><\/strong>, cleft lip<\/b><\/strong>, and spina bifida<\/b><\/strong>. Structural heart problems present at birth can range from mild to severe and may require surgical intervention<\/b><\/strong>. Symptoms include rapid breathing<\/b><\/strong>, feeding difficulties<\/b><\/strong>, and cyanosis<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0(bluish skin).<\/p>

Cleft lip and palate<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0is a birth defect in which the upper lip or palate does not fully form, leading to feeding difficulties<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0and potential speech development problems<\/b><\/strong>, and usually requires surgery.<\/p>

Spina bifida<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0is a congenital condition in which the spinal column does not develop properly<\/b><\/strong>, resulting in physical and cognitive impairments<\/b><\/strong>, which may include paralysis<\/b><\/strong>, bladder or bowel problems<\/b><\/strong>, and learning difficulties<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Metabolic disorders<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0occur when an infant\u2019s body cannot properly process certain substances due to a lack of specific enzymes or for other reasons. Phenylketonuria (PKU)<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0is a genetic disorder in which the baby is unable to break down the amino acid phenylalanine<\/b><\/strong>, which can lead to brain damage<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0if not treated with special diets<\/b><\/strong>. Hypothyroidism<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0is a condition in which the baby’s thyroid gland<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0does not produce enough thyroid hormone, leading to slower growth<\/b><\/strong>, developmental delays<\/b><\/strong>, and cognitive impairments<\/b><\/strong>. Early treatment with thyroid hormone can prevent these complications. Galactosemia<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0is a rare metabolic disorder in which the body cannot break down the sugar galactose<\/b><\/strong>, resulting in liver dysfunction<\/b><\/strong>, cataracts<\/b><\/strong>, and intellectual disabilities<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Feeding problems<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0in infants can result from anatomical<\/b><\/strong>, neurological<\/b><\/strong>, or other medical conditions<\/b><\/strong>. One possible issue is GERD (Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease)<\/b><\/strong>, where stomach contents flow back into the esophagus, causing discomfort<\/b><\/strong>, nausea<\/b><\/strong>, vomiting<\/b><\/strong>, or feeding difficulties<\/b><\/strong>. Lactose intolerance<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0may also appear in infants, leading to bloating<\/b><\/strong>, diarrhea<\/b><\/strong>, or irritability<\/b><\/strong>. Colic<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0can cause excessive crying<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0in infants, usually beginning in the third week of life<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0and lasting until the third or fourth month<\/b><\/strong>. The exact cause is unknown, but it may be related to discomfort in the gastrointestinal tract<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0or the immaturity of the nervous system<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t

\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t

Childhood Period<\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\"Childhood\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Childhood Period<\/b><\/u><\/strong><\/h5>

The childhood period can be defined as comprising early childhood<\/b><\/strong>, the preschool period<\/b><\/strong>, and the school period<\/b><\/strong>, lasting from the first year of life<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0(when the child stops breastfeeding) until the onset of puberty<\/b><\/strong>. Even then, it is not entirely accurate to say that childhood is over, as adolescents are, in many ways, still \u201cchildren\u201d\u2014they just no longer want to be<\/b><\/strong>, and this phase brings about more intense changes, particularly due to the beginning of manifest sexual development<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0and sexual interests<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

The earliest stage of childhood is unconscious<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0and characterized by so-called \u201cchildhood amnesia,\u201d<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0meaning the inability to recall that phase of life. During psychological assessment, individuals typically know very little about this period, and their memories of the preschool stage<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0are also often faded. However, self-awareness<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0begins to develop around the age of three<\/b><\/strong>, when the child starts to distinguish between the \u201cself\u201d and the \u201cnon-self,\u201d initiating the formation of a self-concept<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Awareness of belonging to a particular sex or gender<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0also begins to emerge, and it is in the preschool period<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0that certain gender nonconformities<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0may be observed. These can significantly impact the child\u2019s psychological development, especially when they do not align with the heteronormative standards<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0of the broader society.<\/p>

Psychological problems or disorders<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0that arise in childhood and adolescence<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0can sometimes be very serious. One of the biggest challenges in addressing children’s mental health issues are adults<\/b><\/strong>, particularly their parents<\/b><\/strong>, who often struggle to accept that their child may have a psychological disorder. However, early detection of causes and symptoms<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0of mental disorders yields much better outcomes in treatment than when these issues are repressed or denied<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

A particularly sensitive issue involves children with intellectual disabilities<\/b><\/strong>, or more broadly, children with impairments in psychophysical development<\/b><\/strong>. The core difficulty often does not lie in the children themselves\u2014since they can learn and develop within the limits of their developmental capacities\u2014but rather in the parents<\/b><\/strong>, who may refuse to accept reality. These parents often require psychological support<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0themselves.<\/p>

It is a misconception to think that these children need a psychologist; in many such cases, it is the parents<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0who need psychological intervention. Similarly, children with behavioral disorders<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0would be much easier to treat if their parents were treated alongside them<\/b><\/strong>, as parents often play a major role in causing psychological issues\u2014whether through genetic factors<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0or parenting methods and techniques<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Some mental disorders<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0typically associated with adulthood<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0can also appear in children<\/b><\/strong>. This includes anxiety disorders<\/b><\/strong>, PTSD<\/b><\/strong>, stress- and trauma-related disorders<\/b><\/strong>, and mood disorders<\/b><\/strong>. However, certain disorders are more characteristic of childhood<\/b><\/strong>, such as ADHD<\/b><\/u><\/strong>, psychomotor disorders<\/b><\/u><\/strong>, learning difficulties<\/b><\/u><\/strong>, conduct disorders<\/b><\/u><\/strong>, and oppositional defiant disorder.<\/b><\/u><\/strong><\/p>

In some children, symptoms of psychotic disorders<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0(e.g., schizophrenia<\/b><\/strong>) may also be observed, especially due to genetic predisposition<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0to such illnesses. Increasingly, the topic of psychopathic traits in children<\/b><\/strong>, even from preschool age<\/b><\/strong>, is being discussed\u2014although there is considerable debate within science and clinical practice about whether it is appropriate to speak of personality disorders<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0in children. This is mainly because it is difficult to clearly distinguish such conditions from behavioral disorders<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0at that developmental stage.<\/p>

Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)<\/b><\/u><\/strong><\/h5>

ADHD or Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0is a neurodevelopmental disorder<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0that affects attention<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0(a cognitive ability related to concentration and necessary for performing specific tasks), impulse control<\/b><\/strong>, and hyperactivity<\/b><\/strong>. Symptoms usually appear before the age of twelve<\/b><\/strong>, and are often noticeable as early as preschool age<\/b><\/strong>. The disorder is characterized by inattention<\/b><\/strong>, impulsivity<\/b><\/strong>, and hyperactivity<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Inattention<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0refers to difficulties in focusing<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0and concentrating<\/b><\/strong>, especially during tasks that require mental or intellectual effort<\/b><\/strong>, as well as problems with following and organizing intellectual activities. This disorder is often most noticeable in school settings<\/b><\/strong>, where children struggle to maintain focus during structured activities and consequently exhibit hyperactive and impulsive behaviors<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Impulsivity<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0refers to the difficulty such children (or adults, as ADHD can also occur in adulthood<\/b><\/strong>, although it is more problematic in children because they are not fully aware that they have an issue, unlike adults who may recognize it) have in waiting their turn, interrupting others, or making quick decisions without considering consequences<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Hyperactivity<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0is expressed through excessive restlessness<\/b><\/strong>; these children find it very difficult to sit still and are hard to manage in school or during focused tasks requiring mental effort. They are unable to remain seated or stay calm for extended periods and constantly seek physical activity<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder (DMDD)<\/b><\/u><\/strong><\/h5>

Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder (DMDD) involves frequent and uncontrolled outbursts of anger<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0(verbal and\/or physical aggression that is disproportionate to the situation), chronic irritability<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0(persistent anger, moodiness, and sensitivity between episodes of outbursts), inappropriate stress responses<\/b><\/strong>, and difficulties in emotional regulation<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0(manifested as excessive anger in everyday situations, sudden mood swings, and difficulty calming the child after an outburst).<\/p>

These symptoms must be present for at least one year<\/b><\/strong>, occur at least three times per week<\/b><\/strong>, and manifest in at least two different settings<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0(e.g., school, family environment, peer relationships) to meet diagnostic criteria.<\/p>

Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)<\/b><\/u><\/strong><\/h5>

This disorder in children and adolescents is characterized by a pattern of angry, irritable, argumentative, and defiant behavior<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0directed toward authority figures (parents, teachers, educators, and other adults). These children often argue with adults<\/b><\/strong>, refuse to comply<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0with requests or rules (e.g., refusing to do homework, clean their room, wake up on time, go to school, or remain calm in class), tease others<\/b><\/strong>, and blame others<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0for their own mistakes or inappropriate behavior\u2014an early sign of a projective defense mechanism<\/b><\/strong>, which may later lead to emotional instability<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0in adulthood.<\/p>

These children are often very distressed<\/b><\/strong>, easily offended<\/b><\/strong>, sensitive to criticism<\/b><\/strong>, and exhibit vindictive behavior<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0(at least twice within a six-month period, which is required for diagnosis). These symptoms are considered clinically significant<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0when they interfere with school, family, or social functioning<\/b><\/strong>, and consistent discipline is essential<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Such behavior often arises in the context of inconsistent parenting styles<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0(e.g., one parent uses a permissive style while the other is authoritarian), which is why parents must often be involved in the re-education or behavioral treatment<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0of the child. The child needs to be treated across all settings<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0in which they exhibit inappropriate behavior patterns.<\/p>

Failure to treat this disorder in childhood<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0may lead to more serious psychological consequences<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0in adolescence and adulthood. This disorder can easily progress into antisocial personality disorder<\/b><\/strong>, with individuals becoming defiant and engaging in unlawful behavior<\/b><\/strong>, which may result in criminal proceedings<\/b><\/strong>, sanctions<\/b><\/strong>, and eventual institutionalization<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0(in juvenile detention centers or prisons).<\/p>

Conduct Disorder<\/b><\/u><\/strong><\/h5>

Conduct Disorder<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0refers to significantly more serious behaviors than those seen in Oppositional Defiant Disorder<\/b><\/strong>, involving persistent violations of the rights of others or societal norms<\/b><\/strong>. Symptoms include: aggressiveness toward people or animals<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0(e.g., starting fights, bullying, peer violence), destruction of property<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0(vandalism, breaking things, arson), tendency to lie or steal<\/b><\/strong>, and serious rule violations<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0(running away from home or school, breaking classroom or school rules, committing criminal acts).<\/p>

If left untreated, this disorder may develop into Antisocial Personality Disorder<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0in adulthood. It is particularly concerning because it poses a danger to others<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0more than to the individual themselves, and it carries social and legal consequences<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

A prerequisite<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0for the diagnosis of Antisocial Personality Disorder is the presence of Conduct Disorder in childhood. However, in practice, it is also observed that some individuals did not display such behaviors in childhood<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0or were not diagnosed with this disorder, yet still go on to show antisocial behavior<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0and personality dysfunction<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0in adulthood\u2014often due to various life circumstances<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)<\/b><\/u><\/strong><\/h5>

Autism Spectrum Disorders are an increasing challenge in both psychological<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0and special education practice<\/b><\/strong>, highlighting the growing need for the involvement of psychologists<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0(in detection) and educators<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0(in treatment). Practical experience shows that these disorders are becoming more noticeable among preschool-aged children<\/b><\/strong>, and that the use of technological devices<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0(mobile phones, tablets, televisions) significantly contributes to the development of such disorders. More children are being diagnosed with ASD due to altered developmental pathways<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0when raised more with technology than with social interaction<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

These disorders involve deficits in initiating and maintaining social communication and interaction<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0across various contexts. Children often show restrictive or repetitive behaviors and interests<\/b><\/strong>, with frequent inappropriate or unusual sensory responses<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0to social stimuli. Symptoms may appear early in childhood, particularly when social demands increase<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0and the child begins to struggle with adaptation<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0to social environments.<\/p>

ASD may present with or without intellectual developmental delay<\/b><\/strong>, and with or without speech disorders<\/b><\/strong>. Some children with ASD do not begin speaking at the expected age, though they may understand spoken language<\/b><\/strong>. Communication with these children often lacks reciprocity<\/b><\/strong>\u2014they may not respond<\/b><\/strong>, avoid eye contact<\/b><\/strong>, or fail to respond to their name<\/b><\/strong>. They often struggle to understand nonverbal cues<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0(gestures, facial expressions, eye contact) and have difficulty forming and maintaining social interactions<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0(including friendships, and later, romantic and other relationships).<\/p>

These children tend to prefer solitary activities<\/b><\/strong>, have difficulty adapting to social norms<\/b><\/strong>, and may engage in repetitive movements<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0such as rocking, spinning, or hand-flapping. They often insist on routines and rituals<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0and show strong resistance to change<\/b><\/strong>, following a perceived order and reacting strongly when disrupted. They may have an intense focus on specific interests<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0(e.g., numbers, trains, certain objects or people) and be overly sensitive to sounds, textures, lights<\/b><\/strong>, or show unusual pain tolerance<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Additional symptoms can include anxiety<\/b><\/u><\/strong>, nervousness<\/b><\/strong>, and unusual responses to social interaction<\/b><\/strong>, whether by avoiding or excessively seeking engagement. A previously used term for a milder form of autism was Asperger\u2019s syndrome<\/b><\/strong>, where individuals have average or above-average intelligence<\/b><\/strong>, strong language skills, but difficulties in social interactions and intense, narrow interests. Sometimes, children develop “normally” and then suddenly lose<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0speech, motor, or social skills.<\/p>

ASD is typically diagnosed in early childhood<\/b><\/strong>. While there is no cure<\/b><\/strong>, early intervention<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0(such as speech therapy, social skills training, and behavioral therapies) can help children improve their abilities and adapt to challenges<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Learning Difficulties or Disabilities<\/b><\/u><\/strong><\/h5>

Learning difficulties or disabilities in children appear as specific neurodevelopmental or neurological disorders<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0that affect their ability to learn in a typical way, despite having adequate intelligence<\/b><\/strong>. These disorders include dyslexia<\/b><\/strong>, dyscalculia<\/b><\/strong>, and dysgraphia<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Dyslexia<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0refers to difficulties with reading<\/b><\/strong>, spelling<\/b><\/strong>, and writing<\/b><\/strong>, despite good cognitive abilities. Dyscalculia<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0involves difficulties in understanding<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0and performing mathematical tasks<\/b><\/strong>. Dysgraphia<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0refers to difficulties in writing<\/b><\/strong>, spelling<\/b><\/strong>, and organizing thoughts<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0in written form.<\/p>

These disorders are not related to intelligence<\/b><\/strong>, but rather affect specific areas of learning<\/b><\/strong>. Therefore, children with such difficulties need specialized support<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0in order to achieve appropriate academic success in school.<\/p>

Psychomotor Disorders (Tics)<\/b><\/u><\/strong><\/h5>

Psychomotor disorders refer to involuntary, repetitive movements or vocalizations<\/b><\/strong>, commonly known as tics<\/b><\/strong>. Motor tics<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0may be simple<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0(brief, rapid, involving small muscle groups such as blinking, head jerking, nose twitching, shoulder shrugging, facial grimacing) or complex<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0(coordinated movements involving larger muscle groups, such as jumping, touching objects or people, spinning the body, echopraxia<\/b><\/strong>\u2014imitating others\u2019 movements, or making inappropriate or obscene gestures\u2014copropraxia<\/b><\/strong>).<\/p>

Tics may appear suddenly<\/b><\/strong>, often triggered by high stress<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0or traumatic experiences<\/b><\/strong>. They can be transient<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0or chronic<\/b><\/strong>, and may be motor<\/b><\/strong>, vocal<\/b><\/strong>, or both<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

In Tourette\u2019s Syndrome<\/b><\/strong>, both motor and vocal tics<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0are present. Vocal tics can include grunting<\/b><\/strong>, throat clearing<\/b><\/strong>, or uttering obscene words<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t

\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t

Puberty and Adolescence (Late Childhood and Youth)<\/h4>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\"Puberty\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Puberty and Adolescence (Late Childhood and Youth)<\/b><\/strong><\/h5>

The period of puberty<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0begins with visible physical changes<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0that can be noticed by the children themselves, as well as by their parents and others in their environment. These changes result from physiological processes<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0and biological maturation<\/b><\/strong>, leading to so-called sexual maturation<\/b><\/strong>, which is biological in nature<\/b><\/strong>, but not psychological<\/b><\/strong>. This distinction is important, as pubescent and adolescent children<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0are particularly receptive to sexual curiosity<\/b><\/strong>, and may engage in solitary or interactive sexual activities<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Sexuality<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0becomes one of the core issues in the development and behavior of young people, making them one of the most vulnerable groups<\/b><\/strong>, especially because they can easily become victims of sexual exploitation<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0by adults or older individuals. On the other hand, young people may also engage in risky behaviors<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0among themselves (e.g., drug and alcohol use<\/b><\/strong>, reckless driving<\/b><\/strong>, unprotected sex<\/b><\/strong>), which can have negative consequences<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0for their future psychological development<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Sometimes such behaviors are merely experimental<\/b><\/strong>, but frequent experimentation can lead to undesirable outcomes<\/b><\/strong>. Among adolescents, unwanted pregnancies<\/b><\/strong>, sexually transmitted infections<\/b><\/strong>, the development of addictive behaviors<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0(drug or alcohol dependence), or substance abuse<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0are not uncommon. These behaviors may also lead to conflicts with the law<\/b><\/strong>, seriously endangering not only their personal well-being<\/b><\/strong>, but also the well-being of those responsible for their care<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Erotic love<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0is typically experienced for the first time during adolescence<\/b><\/strong>, when young people begin to choose partners with whom they fall in love. However, adolescent love is often accompanied by an idealization of love<\/b><\/strong>, shaped by media portrayals (in literature, movies, and mainstream culture). Girls may imagine a \u201cprince on a white horse\u201d<\/b><\/strong>, while boys may dream of \u201ca princess awakened by a kiss\u201d<\/b><\/strong>\u2014in a metaphorical sense. This idealization can lead to obsessive views of love<\/b><\/strong>, which may result in problems in daily life<\/b><\/strong>\u2014such as neglect of school obligations<\/b><\/strong>, irresponsibility toward academic tasks<\/b><\/strong>, reckless behavior<\/b><\/strong>, unprotected sexual activity<\/b><\/strong>, and substance use<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

When a partner breaks up<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0or ends the relationship, adolescents may experience suicidal behaviors<\/b><\/strong>, depressive episodes<\/b><\/strong>, and other mental health difficulties<\/b><\/strong>, largely due to the idealized perception of love<\/b><\/strong>. Adults who idealize love<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0in a similar way may also face emotional struggles, often indicating a fixation on adolescence<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0or unresolved psychological crises<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0from that stage of development.<\/p>

Disorders typically emerging during puberty and adolescence<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0are often related to sexual behavior<\/b><\/strong>, as this is the stage when sexual needs and interests<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0begin to be expressed in an interactive social environment<\/b><\/strong>. Adolescence is also marked by the emergence of eating disorders <\/b><\/u><\/strong>such as Anorexia Nervosa<\/b><\/u><\/strong>\u00a0and Bulimia Nervosa<\/b><\/u><\/strong>, due to increasing concern with body image<\/b><\/u><\/strong>, which may lead to a distorted self-concept<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0and impact the formation of the adolescent’s overall psychosocial identity<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Defiant behavior<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0from childhood may reappear, but now it becomes more intense and rebellious<\/b><\/strong>, with adolescents often resisting expected behaviors<\/b><\/strong>. Skipping school, running away from home<\/b><\/strong>, and other forms of irresponsible behavior<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0may arise\u2014these are often early warning signs<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0that professional help is needed<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

However, adolescents rarely seek help on their own, believing they are capable of solving their problems independently. At the same time, adults are often unequipped<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0with adequate psychological knowledge about adolescence to properly approach young people with their specific personality traits.<\/p>

For some adolescents, institutionalization<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0becomes the only solution, and in certain cases, hospitalization and pharmacological treatment<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0are necessary\u2014especially in cases involving psychotic disorders<\/b><\/strong>, substance abuse<\/b><\/strong>, or legal violations<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Some adolescents may be at risk of falling victim<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0to human trafficking<\/b><\/strong>, juvenile prostitution<\/b><\/strong>, or sexual and other forms of exploitation<\/b><\/strong>\u2014a problem particularly pronounced within Roma subcultures<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0in certain regions.<\/p>

All psychological disorders that occur in children and adults<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0may also appear during adolescence<\/b><\/strong>. Therefore, early psychodiagnostic assessment and intervention<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0play a crucial role in improving the well-being of adolescents<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0and the people who care for them<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

In most cases, it is parents who seek professional help<\/b><\/strong>, usually due to disturbed relationships<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0with their children going through puberty or adolescence<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Young people may face a variety of challenges, but they are most often preoccupied with their self-image<\/b><\/strong>, their bodies<\/b><\/strong>, and how others perceive them<\/b><\/strong>. The formation of a healthy self-concept<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0and value system<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0is crucial for their ongoing emotional and social functioning<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Young people are also vulnerable to the media mainstream<\/b><\/strong>, as they identify with role models<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0presented to them through various media platforms. With the internet available to everyone at all times<\/b><\/strong>, the content they consume online<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0has a powerful influence, often distorting their perception of themselves and the world around them<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

This phenomenon is particularly pronounced in contemporary generations<\/b><\/strong>, especially among those born after the 1990s<\/b><\/strong>, in the third millennium<\/b><\/strong>, during a time of rapid technological advancement. While this progress has brought many benefits, it has also introduced new problems. Young people tend to uncritically accept everything<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0they see in media content. Through the process of identification with actors, singers, and other mainstream figures<\/b><\/strong>, they may develop psychological issues<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

One of the most pressing concerns is the identification of youth and children with \u201cpopular careers\u201d<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0such as being a TikToker<\/b><\/strong>, YouTuber<\/b><\/strong>, or other kinds of influencers<\/b><\/strong>, which are not true professions, as many of these individuals lack real talent<\/b><\/strong>, but simply find ways to earn money<\/b><\/strong>. Young people see this as “valid” and thus lose motivation to pursue education<\/b><\/strong>, believing that schooling is unnecessary for achieving financial success<\/b><\/strong>. The large sums of money<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0earned through such \u201cinfluencer lifestyles\u201d become the ultimate goal<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0for many.<\/p>

Additionally, the influence of media through music, film<\/b><\/strong>, and other forms of \u201cmedia art\u201d increasingly draws youth into a glamourized world of crime and violence<\/b><\/strong>. Many uncritically identify with criminal figures<\/b><\/strong>, believing the “criminal lifestyle” is actually cool<\/b><\/strong>. Boys may fantasize about becoming \u201ctough guys\u201d through criminal activity\u2014often portrayed through hypermasculine imagery<\/b><\/strong>\u2014while girls may idealize such boys<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0as desirable partners, developing a specific condition known as hybristophilia<\/b><\/u><\/strong>\u00a0(attraction to individuals who commit crimes).<\/p>

During adolescence, the fundamental question becomes \u201cWho am I?\u201d<\/b><\/strong>, and young people seek to answer this question by exploring their identity<\/b><\/strong>, experimenting with various aspects of life<\/b><\/strong>. Questions regarding psychosexual identity<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0also emerge\u2014issues which, if not resolved during adolescence, may persist into adulthood<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Adolescents may seek psychological support<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0to address concerns related to their psychosexual and broader psychosocial identity<\/b><\/strong>, which typically begins to take shape during this phase of development. Identity formation<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0is not a simple task\u2014adolescents face many demands, and this developmental period is sudden and full of change<\/b><\/strong>, requiring adaptation. At the same time, adults often expect adolescents to remain children<\/b><\/strong>, yet also to understand the world like adults<\/b><\/strong>, placing them in a confusing position in which they \u201cdon\u2019t know how to act,\u201d<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0and thus experiment with different roles<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Psychological difficulties<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0that arise in adolescence are caused by a combination of biological factors<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0(e.g., genetics, brain chemistry, hormonal changes), environmental influences<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0(e.g., family conflict, trauma, peer pressure, social media, and media in general), and psychological factors<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0(e.g., low self-esteem, academic stress, identity issues).<\/p>

Psychologists<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0can play a key role in helping resolve adolescent crises and internal conflicts<\/b><\/strong>, but this requires that adolescents establish a meaningful therapeutic relationship (transfer)<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0with the psychologist and are motivated to work on themselves<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Some adolescents, due to legal issues<\/b><\/strong>, may become institutionalized in juvenile facilities<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0supervised by courts and prosecutors. These cases require a multidisciplinary approach<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0involving professionals from various fields\u2014psychology, psychiatry, pedagogy, social work, law, and criminology<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Hybristophilia<\/b><\/strong><\/h5>

Hybristophilia<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0is a condition (not yet officially classified as a disorder) in which a person experiences sexual attraction<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0toward individuals who have committed a criminal offense<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0or who are typically associated with criminal activity<\/b><\/strong>, especially when those individuals have committed dangerous or violent crimes<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0such as robbery, murder, or drug trafficking. This condition is sometimes referred to as the \u201cBonnie and Clyde Syndrome\u201d<\/b><\/strong>, named after the couple who committed a series of robberies and murders during the 1930s.<\/p>

Hybristophilia can also be present in adulthood<\/b><\/strong>, and is characterized by an intense fascination with individuals identified as criminal<\/b><\/strong>, especially those convicted or accused of serious crimes<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0such as homicide or violent acts. These individuals often believe that they can \u201cchange\u201d or \u201csave\u201d the criminal<\/b><\/strong>, idealizing them and creating a positive image<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0despite their criminal behavior.<\/p>

They often feel excited by interactions with criminals<\/b><\/strong>, romanticize crime and danger<\/b><\/strong>, and ignore the violent acts<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0committed. They may justify the criminal\u2019s behavior<\/b><\/strong>, frequently rationalizing<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0their tendencies. Behaviorally, they may become fascinated with criminals, write them letters, or seek contact with them while they are in prison, often with the goal of establishing a relationship\u2014even to the point of marriage<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

They may publicly defend the rights of criminals<\/b><\/strong>, or participate in online or offline communities<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0that advocate for or praise criminal figures<\/b><\/strong>. Many become obsessed with true crime documentaries<\/b><\/strong>, real-life criminal stories, or specific individuals from the criminal world.<\/p>

There are two forms of hybristophilia<\/b><\/strong>: passive<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0and aggressive<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Passive hybristophilia<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0refers to a sexual or emotional attraction to criminals<\/b><\/strong>, without any involvement in criminal activity. Individuals with this tendency often enter into romantic or marital (or extramarital) relationships<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0with offenders, particularly while they are incarcerated<\/b><\/strong>. For example, in some regions, it is common for criminals to find a girlfriend through acquaintances<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0while in prison, who then registers as a cohabiting partner<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0through social services, allowing \u201cprivate visits\u201d<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0during which sexual activity is permitted.<\/p>

There are numerous examples of female admirers of serial killers or violent criminals<\/b><\/strong>, often portrayed in the media as \u201cheroes,\u201d with women (typically) becoming fascinated by their physical appearance<\/b><\/strong>. Such individuals often present a combination of severe <\/b><\/strong>personality disorders<\/b><\/u><\/strong>, most commonly antisocial<\/b><\/u><\/strong>\u00a0<\/u>and narcissistic personality disorders<\/b><\/u><\/strong>, occasionally accompanied by psychotic<\/b><\/strong>, bizarre traits<\/b><\/strong>, or paraphilic disorders<\/b><\/u><\/strong>\u00a0(sexual behavior disorders).<\/p>

Aggressive hybristophilia<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0involves actively participating in criminal acts<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0alongside the criminal to whom the person is attracted. These individuals often have low self-esteem<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0and seek validation<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0from a \u201cdominant\u201d or \u201cpowerful\u201d figure. At the same time, there is often a desire for control<\/b><\/strong>\u2014knowing that the partner is in prison and thus \u201cunable\u201d to seek another relationship<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>

Such individuals may crave excitement and sensation-seeking<\/b><\/strong>, and may also have unresolved trauma<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0related to past abuse<\/b><\/strong>. These behaviors can also stem from the romanticization of crime<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0in media\u2014through documentaries, fictional films, books, music, etc. While not an officially recognized mental disorder<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0in current diagnostic classifications, hybristophilia can pose a serious problem in daily functioning<\/b><\/strong>\u00a0for individuals who “suffer” from these symptoms<\/b><\/strong>.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Forgiveness is a crucial skill, but can you also forget what you’re forgiving \u2014 and should you?<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3,"featured_media":40571,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"pagelayer_contact_templates":[],"_pagelayer_content":"","footnotes":""},"categories":[65],"tags":[75,76],"class_list":["post-40647","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-psychological-areas","tag-facts-en","tag-psychology-en"],"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/testing-bench.online\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/40647","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/testing-bench.online\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/testing-bench.online\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/testing-bench.online\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/testing-bench.online\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=40647"}],"version-history":[{"count":22,"href":"https:\/\/testing-bench.online\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/40647\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":43767,"href":"https:\/\/testing-bench.online\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/40647\/revisions\/43767"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/testing-bench.online\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/40571"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/testing-bench.online\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=40647"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/testing-bench.online\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=40647"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/testing-bench.online\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=40647"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}